• Intervertebral herniated cervical, thoracic and lumbar disc disease
• Spondylolisthesis
• Scoliosis
• Abnormalities of the spine and spinal cord
• Vertebral hemangiomas
• Spine and spinal cord tumors (intramedullary, extramedullary)
• Syringomyelia
• Consequences of a spinal injury
• Spinal pain syndromes
• Vascular pathology of the spine and spinal cord
• Acute traumatic brain injury (concussion, brain injuries of varying severity, subdural, epidural and intracerebral hematomas)
• Gunshot wound to the head
• Chronic subdural hematoma
• Consequences of traumatic brain injury (bone defect of the skull, traumatic nasal and ear CSF leaks, traumatic paresis facial nerve, traumatic optic nerve damage, vegetative state)
• Spontaneous nasal CSF leak
• Brain abscesses
• Subdural empyema
• Hydrocephalus (post-traumatic; normal pressure)
• Arachnoid cyst of the brain
• Idiopathic intracranial hypertension.
• Spontaneous intracranial hypotension

Updated 01 August 2026